Ambiguous citizenship, as a concept, not only hints at the changing politics of the Kenyan state concerning its Somali citizens and the manifold ways in which Kenyan Somalis react to it, but it also takes into consideration the various roles Kenyan Somalis play in society. Lonsdale, Soil, Work, Civilization, 308. Amina dresses like any other urban (Muslim) girl in Kenya, she typically wears Somali attire (often hiding her Arsenal shirt underneath) and a Kenyan bracelet. Amina, a young woman in her early 20s, was born in Nakuru. 39. Unlike Abdullahi, who always insisted on remaining in Kenya, both of his brothers now live in Europe. )exports of goods and services: 13.9% (2017 est. At the same time Kenyan Somalis complained about being overrun by the Rer [reer, Somali for clan or group] Somalia.Footnote37, In the cities outside of the northeastern region, the situation for the Somali population likewise changed from the 1990s onwards. Lewis, The Ogaden, 578; But cf. 61. 5 Howick Place | London | SW1P 1WG. agriculture: 34.5% (2017 est. . )hydroelectricity: 32.6% of total installed capacity (2020 est. )percent of municipal solid waste recycled: 8% (2009 est. Changes in identification over time are also indicated by the Afrobarometer data concerning ethnic versus national identification. This move, already planned before 2011, was realized after several kidnappings in the northeastern region in 2011 (see Lind et al., Killing a Mosquito, 4). )$4,600 (2019 est. The Portuguese were pushed out in the late 1600s by the combined forces of Oman and Pate, an island off the coast. Kenyan Somalis are not the only ambiguous citizens of Kenya. The post-election violence of 20072008, during which more than 1,000 Kenyans died and more than 300,000 were displaced, resulted in heightened perceptions to rebuild the country as a nation of diversity. 65 In 1948 and 1962 enumeration in Northern Province was not done by household because of sparse population and logistical difficulties. ), degree of risk: very high (2023)food or waterborne diseases: bacterial and protozoal diarrhea, hepatitis A, and typhoid fevervectorborne diseases: malaria, dengue fever, and Rift Valley feverwater contact diseases: schistosomiasisanimal contact diseases: rabies, total: 1.68 liters of pure alcohol (2019 est. This strategy of stigmatization informed the security measures taken. 106. Those who reside in southern Somalia (e.g. Formula Narratives and the Making of Social Stratification and Inequality, The Ogaden and the Fragility of Somali Segmentary Nationalism, Killing a Mosquito with a Hammer: Al-Shabaab Violence and State Security Responses in Kenya, Between a Protracted and a Crisis Situation: Policy Responses to Somali Refugees in Kenya, Rendering Difference Visible: The Kenyan State and its Somali Citizens, Soil, Work, Civilisation, and Citizenship in Kenya, Autochthony and Family: The Politics of Kinship in White Kenyan Bids to Belong. In the multi-ethnic state of Kenya, many are subjected to this ambiguous citizenship: Asians, white Kenyans, Nubians, or Arabs. From Kenyan Somalis urbanized during the colonial time, this meta-image derives the legal notion of alienness, and from the Somalis of the northeastern region the tropes of violent opposition to the state and of cultural difference. About 95% of them are Muslim. Kenyan Somalis are drawn back and forth between an emphasis on their ethnic Somaliness and their belonging to Kenya as citizens they share their socialization with other fellow Kenyans, but are treated as if not quite belonging to Kenya. Similar narratives of internal migration feature in many of the interviews. 38. The possibilities the new Constitution concedes are slowly finding their ways into laws and thereafter into practice. Together, these attacks claimed over 400 lives.Footnote68 The attackers persistently targeted non-Muslims, and claimed that they were reacting to non-Muslim occupation of Muslim territory. )male: 19.5% (2020 est. Created in 1994, 3 it has an official population of 4.5 million, 4 predominantly ethnic Somalis, Ethiopia's third largest nationality (around 6.2 per cent), and "roughly one-third of the widely . In the late 19th century the Ogaden was claimed by both Ethiopia and the Italian protectorate of Somaliland. Kenya has experienced dramatic population growth since the mid-20th century as a result of its high birth rate and its declining mortality rate. Abdhullahi, in contrast, mostly stayed away from other Somalis, with the exception of business endeavours. Morgan, "Ethnic Geography of Kenya," 79. M. Otsialo, Kenya-Somalia fence to keep away unwanted elements, says Mandera governor Ali Roba. Daily Nation, 2 December 2016. http://www.nation.co.ke/counties/mandera/Kenya-Somalia-border-fence/1183298-3472166-hyn3f6z/. KHRC, Foreigners at Home, 2426; Interview with Amina, August 2016. In such families, members can often understand Somali, but do not speak it properly. One Imam in Nakuru,Footnote97 for instance, who was born nearby Garissa, went to a local state primary school and then to different Islamic educational institutes on the coast, in Garissa and in Nairobi. Examples are Aden Duale, who became the Majority Leader of the National Assembly, Amina Mohammed Jibril, Cabinet Secretary for Foreign Affairs, and Adan Mohammed, Cabinet Secretary for Industrialization. around Kismayo) are much more exposed to Al Shabaab than the others. There is a kind of national excitement coming with the elections they can be regarded as a national ritual in which the residents of Kenya fully participate.Footnote63 This is also the case for the northeastern region, despite the low voter registration in these counties, standing at 32.25% in Wajir, Mandera and Garissa,Footnote64 compared to 66% for overall Kenyan.Footnote65 Although Carrier and Kochore do not explain this low registration, it appears to result from a mixture of factors, from the complicated registration processes in remote areas, difficulties in acquiring identification documents for Kenyan Somalis to flawed population estimations. )-$5.258 billion (2019 est. Carrier and Kochore, Navigating Ethnicity, 144. ), total petroleum production: 0 bbl/day (2021 est. ), -$5.744 billion (2021 est. There had been warnings that were not taken seriously concerning the attacks on the Westgate Mall (2013), the coastal town Mpeketoni close to Lamu (2014), as well as on the Garissa University College (2015).Footnote69 Moreover, when the Kenyan security apparatus reacted, it did so in an incoherent and chaotic way.Footnote70 Instead of improving coordination between the multiple security agencies, political actors responded in the same manner as before by blaming terrorism on Somali refugees in particular and the Somali inhabitants of Kenya in general, externalizing insecurity by utilizing the image of Somalis as ambiguous citizens, ignoring that many of the attackers were neither Kenyan Somalis nor Somali nationals.Footnote71. 101. http://kenyaimnotaterrorist.tumblr.com [accessed 21 April 2016]. The establishment of counties, provided for in the new Constitution as an outcome of the post-electoral violence of 20072008, aimed at decentralizing power.Footnote57 Thereby the right of communities to manage their own affairs and to further their development was recognized.Footnote58 Minorities cautiously welcomed devolution, hoping for more control. 90. 51. The region has an overall low population density and is home to Somali-speaking nomadic pastoralists. )5.24% (2019 est.). The 2009 census was accompanied by plans for the devolution of power and resources, strengthening the importance of the local. 81. According to Human Rights . Accessed March 7, 2018. http://www.afrobarometer.org. These Highlands are unique in that their elevation does not gradually increase, but rather shoots straight up immediately from the flat land below. The only exception from this pattern in Nakuru was a Muslim youth group in which Amina was participating: its all-Somali members, who had met in school, came from Somalia as well as from Kenya (and here from the urban areas as well as from the northeastern part of the country). The Dir, Daarood, Isaaq, and Hawiye, which together make up the Samaal clans, constitute roughly 75 percent of the population. The changed mode of the presidential election also introduced new competitive elements. We are one Kenya: Representations of the Nation, Leadership, and de-Ethnicized Identity on Reality TV, The Isaq Somali Diaspora and Poll-Tax Agitation in Kenya, 193641, The Unaccountable Census: Colonial Enumeration and Its Implications for the Somali People of Kenya, A New Model Village. In the 1960s and 1970s, Kenyans pursued higher education in the UK because of colonial ties, but as British immigration rules tightened, the US, the then Soviet Union, and Canada became attractive study destinations. One of the candidates, William Ruto, campaigned as a fellow pastoralist, suggesting that he and the northern voters should bring their herds together in the quest for northern development.Footnote91, McIntosh stated that whites in Kenya do not fit the stereotype of the wenyeji, a Kiswahili term invoking local inhabitants whocan take for granted cultural citizenship in the nation as a whole.Footnote92 She shows several strategies used by white Kenyans to underline their belonging to Kenya one of them consists of stressing their cultural citizenship, for instance by having attended Kenyan schools.Footnote93. On average, around 7 people live in each house; access to drinking water is very limited (barely 38% of the population). )106.451 (2020 est. 58.17million more inhabitants? HRW, Death and Disappearances, 16; Lind et al., Killing a Mosquito, 14. In a similar vein, Somalis emphasize their cultural belonging to Kenya when presenting themselves as citizens. Schlee, Territorializing Ethnicity.. ), municipal: 500 million cubic meters (2020 est. Their perception of religious, economic and political marginalization partly derives from the feeling of lost power, which emerged with colonialism and intensified after independence. ), fossil fuels: 8.3% of total installed capacity (2020 est. 36. Counting ethnic affiliation was seen by some commentatorsFootnote49 as reintroducing ethnicity into politics when unity should be paramount. 8. IEBC, Post-election Evaluation Report, 72. )crude oil and lease condensate exports: 0 bbl/day (2018 est. ), total subscriptions: 61,096 (2021 est. By closing this message, you are consenting to our use of cookies. Kenya's young and growing population presents a huge market for investors. Register to receive personalised research and resources by email. )tide and wave: 0% of total installed capacity (2020 est. 19. The term Somali is used as an umbrella term, applied to a very heterogeneous population. The widespread use of rape in Ogaden has . ), fresh water lake(s): Lake Victoria (shared with Tanzania and Uganda) - 62,940 sq kmsalt water lake(s): Lake Turkana (shared with Ethiopia) - 6,400 sq km, Atlantic Ocean drainage: (Mediterranean Sea) Nile (3,254,853 sq km), population heavily concentrated in the west along the shore of Lake Victoria; other areas of high density include the capital of Nairobi, and in the southeast along the Indian Ocean coast as shown in this population distribution map, recurring drought; flooding during rainy seasons, volcanism: limited volcanic activity; the Barrier (1,032 m) last erupted in 1921; South Island is the only other historically active volcano, the Kenyan Highlands comprise one of the most successful agricultural production regions in Africa; glaciers are found on Mount Kenya, Africa's second highest peak; unique physiography supports abundant and varied wildlife of scientific and economic value; Lake Victoria, the world's largest tropical lake and the second largest fresh water lake, is shared among three countries: Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda, Kikuyu 17.1%, Luhya 14.3%, Kalenjin 13.4%, Luo 10.7%, Kamba 9.8%, Somali 5.8%, Kisii 5.7%, Mijikenda 5.2%, Meru 4.2%, Maasai 2.5%, Turkana 2.1%,non-Kenyan 1%, other 8.2% (2019 est. The British established the East Africa Protectorate in 1895, which in 1920 was converted into a colony and named Kenya after its highest mountain. Kenyan Somalis have become a stronger part of the Kenyan political sphere, as well as of the Kenyan economy, yet they are still marginalized in terms of legal recognition of their citizenship. They also inhabit Somalia's major cities such as Mogadishu and Kismayo. With his brothers, he plans to start an agricultural business. This was the time when economic and political developments in Somalia had begun to look more promising than before.Footnote107 Just a short while before she had told me that there were three groups of Somalis in Nakuru: those from Somalia, those from Kenya, and returnees. )note: data are in 2017 dollars, 6.11% (2021 est. In high school she played soccer, and she likes walking around in town, even though people recurrently whisper walaal in her direction.Footnote106 For some time, she had a Nubian boyfriend nobody knew about. Kenyas Somalis, however, occupy the most ambiguous situation of all. My thanks go to James Carrier, David OKane, John Eidson and Keren Weitzberg for their fruitful comments and to Fatma A. Hassan for her help during fieldwork in Kenya. 73. )note: data are in 2017 dollars, 7.52% (2021 est. Even the existence of Somali heroes, as seen in the Westgate Mall AttackFootnote100 or initiatives against that image (#KenyaImNotATerrorist)Footnote101 do not seem to change this picture. In 2013, presidential elections coincided with the new county-level elections, intensifying this feature of Kenya politics. This inability to speak Somali was true even though Abdullahis brothers mainly lived within Somali circles: their closest contacts were members of the extended kin network and of their own clan and the flat in which Abdullahi was living was situated in a Somali middle class neighbourhood. Interview with Abdullahi, Mombasa, August 2011. Fifty years of abuse and neglect is too long to endure. Lonsdale, Soil, Work, Civilization, 309. Even though Kenyan Somalis have been treated as ambiguous citizens since independence, the question for many of them is not so much if they belong to Kenya, but rather how. These gray spaces develop through the interaction of different actors, many of them non-Somali Kenyan politicians, but as well Somali elites, who use their position to shake off competitors. This prevalence of extended kin-networks and of living in co-ethnic neighbourhoods is, however, not only true for Kenyan Somalis, but widespread in Kenya (and beyond). This may appear to be a gloomy conclusion, but there are some developments that might render the picture in brighter light. Kenya National Assembly Official Record (Hansard), Parliamentary Debates, July 14, 1999, p. 1327 and October 24, 2001, p. 2713. The government was unable to respond adequately to the attacks. )5.11% (2019 est. Otherwise the background can have a very big impact on somebodys life.Footnote95. )imports: 0 cubic meters (2021 est. 86. Secondly, there are urbanized Somalis whose ancestors settled in the colonial towns. )arable land: 9.8% (2018 est. )forest: 6.1% (2018 est. 22. Nairobi Development and the Somali Question in Kenya, c. 191517. The term ambiguous citizens seems to capture this situation better than the often-used expression second class citizens, as it carries the notion of uncertainty and the undetermined, as well as the emotional side of citizenship, going beyond a purely legal definition. Population [ edit] According to the 2019 Kenya census, approximately 2,780,502 ethnic Somalis live in Kenya. Cited by lists all citing articles based on Crossref citations.Articles with the Crossref icon will open in a new tab. Independent Electoral and Boundaries Commission (IEBC). Not only are they singled out by the police because of their physical appearance, but when walking along the street people whisper terms like warya,Footnote85 strengthening feelings of not-quite belonging. The situation of an Ogaden born in Kenya is very different from the one of an Ogaden born in Kismayo from one born in Region 5. During the Wagalla massacre in 1984, for instance, between 1,000 and 5,000 Somalis were killed by security personnel, demonstrating a continuity of military and state policy towards the north.Footnote23 Yet despite the violence of the Kenyan state in the northeastern region, Lewis could write in the late 1980s The large Somali community in Northern Kenyatends tobe quite firmly integrated into Kenya.Footnote24. )transmission/distribution losses: 2.724 billion kWh (2019 est. )carbon dioxide emissions: 17.91 megatons (2016 est. Ogaden STATISTICS Status: Ethnic Minority Areas: 327,068 km2 Population: 4,439,147 (2007 Census) Languages: Somali (95.9%), Oromifa (2.24%), Amharic (0.92%) and Gurage (0.033%) Religion: Muslim (98.4%), Orthodox Christian (0.6%) and 1% others ), on food: 52.9% of household expenditures (2018 est. When looking at those other groups Asians, Whites, Nubians or Arabs two main dimensions along which Kenyanness is constructed come into focus: a racial dimension and a cultural dimension. 98. The two countries went to war in 1888, but the conflict was ended by the . )nuclear: 0% of total installed capacity (2020 est. )other: 45.8% (2018 est. )other alcohols: 0.03 liters of pure alcohol (2019 est. Government commitment and international technical support spurred Kenyan contraceptive use, decreasing the fertility rate (children per woman) from about 8 in the late 1970s to less than 5 children twenty years later, but it has plateaued at about 3 children as of 2022. Both of them, as good Muslims, did not go out to bars, but instead played video games in the evening and enjoyed Somali music. ), 54.2% of GDP (2017 est. 10.9% vs 4.9% 36.62% lower obesity rate among adults? 30. Kenya has experienced dramatic population growth since the mid-20th century as a result of its high birth rate and its declining mortality rate. 28. See Balaton-Chrimes, Counting as Citizen.. Talking from the current perspective an old man in Nakuru spoke about the early 1960s: In July [1960] Somalia was declared independent, in October I went there. Although some Kenyan Somalis are part of the socio-economic and political elite of Kenya, they remain trapped in the position of ambiguous citizens, not part of the nation, but also not outside it. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons CC BY license, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. This makes it more difficult for the vast majority of Somalis not involved in these movements to claim their Kenyanness. While they have been treated as ambiguous citizens since independence, many think of themselves as Kenyans and at least in the last decade, Somalia, Somaliland and Puntland have not been central points of reference for many. Islam is also one of the elements dividing Kenyan Somalis from the Christian majority. Her mother grew up in Garissa in northeastern Kenya. In the North Eastern Province, they had at least what is theirs. Abyssinia of eastern Africa. This was widely celebrated across the Ogadeen population in the Horn of Africa and in the diaspora. Accessed March 6, 2018. http://www.unhcr.org/ke/wp-content/uploads/sites/2/2018/01/Kenya-Operation-Factsheet-December-2017-.pdf. [1] Among these individuals are a number of ethnically Somali international migrants, around 300,000 of whom inhabit the wider East and South Africa regions. See for instance, Soysal, Limits of Citizenship; Al-Sharmani and Horst, Marginal Actors?. 33. ), household consumption: 79.5% (2017 est. 17. )percent of population: 29% (2021 est. )methane emissions: 37.65 megatons (2020 est. Anderson, Remembering Wagalla, 660. Weitzberg, We Do Not Have, cautions that also this term implicitly sets Somalis apart from other transnational groups in Kenya (p. 15), for whom nationality is rarely mentioned. 57. According to a Somali MP (interviewed in September 2014), about 100,000 Somalians were living in Eastleigh (Nairobi) alone, many of them not registered. This status was similar to that of Nubians, see Sarre, The Nubians of Kibera.. Between 2017 and 2023, the population needing humanitarian assistance in parts of Eastern Africa rose from 22.5 million to 68 million and, as reported in the financial tracking systems of the United Nation Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affair- UN-OCHA, the cost of humanitarian assistance doubled from US$4.1 billion to US$9.4 billion. Almost 40% of Kenyans are under the age of 15 as of 2020 because of sustained high fertility, early marriage and childbearing, and an unmet need for family planning. 6. #KenyaInvestmentHub Pride of Africa . This paper deals with the way the politics of belonging have been enacted in Kenya in the last decade and what this has meant for Kenyan Somalis. Anderson, Remembering Wagalla, 662663. This paper is based on research into the interlinkages of different groups of ethnic Somalis in Kenyan urban centres, using the example of Nakuru, the fourth biggest city of Kenya (and to some extent Nairobi and Mombasa). Kenya Population Census 1969, 1; Kenya Population Census 1979, 8. During the screening of Kenyans of Somali descent in 1989, those considered as belonging to an indigenous lineage were issued pink screening cards.Footnote25 All others were effectively declared non-citizens, losing everything linked to Kenyan citizenship status (such as property).Footnote26 Kenyan Somalis were, as during the Wagalla massacre,Footnote27 on both sides of this event in both cases a small Somali political elite used the events to weaken their economic and political rivals.Footnote28 Even though not all Kenyan Somalis were registered, the pink screening card would be a requirement for obtaining an ID years later. Our background is more or less the same. Even though the High Court nullified parts of the bill, especially those concerned with the freedom of press and a clause limiting the number of refugees in the country to 150,000, most of its sections remain in place.Footnote77 This last step taken by the government indicates that security measures targeting Kenyan Somalis are part of a wider political landscape, encompassing not only the global war on terror,Footnote78 but also changing political structures within Kenya. The Ogaden is a plateau, with an elevation above sea level that ranges from 1,500 metres in the northwest, falling to about 300 metres along the southern limits and the Wabi Shebelle valley. Wiesmann, Kiteme and Mwangi, Socio-Economic Atlas, 122128. The establishment of Jubbaland in 2013 cemented the return of Ogaden political relevance to Somalia. )-$4.792 billion (2020 est. In 1890, Germany and the UK divided up the region, with the UK taking the north and the Germans the south, including present-day Tanzania, Burundi, and Rwanda. )expenditures: $24.271 billion (2019 est. The main part of the data, consisting of open and structured interviews (such as social network interviews) as well as participant observation, was collected in several periods of extended field research since 2010 mainly in urban Somali neighbourhoods, Somali shopping centres, and Islamic institutions. 2005 - PAGE 173, Learn how and when to remove this template message, Speaker of the National Assembly of Kenya, Neustadt International Prize for Literature, "2019 Kenya Population and Housing Census Volume IV: Distribution of Population by Socio-Economic Characteristics", "Somalia: Minorities and indigenous peoples", "Clanship and Contract in Northern Somaliland", "Somalia Maps - Perry-Castaeda Map Collection - UT Library Online", http://www.doollo.com/mainpage/sayidmaxamed/xasanowhubqaadaye.htm, "Collective Punishment: War Crimes and crimes against Humanity in the Ogaden area of Ethiopia's Somali Regional State", https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ogaden_(clan)&oldid=1150490853, Articles needing cleanup from August 2022, Articles with bare URLs for citations from August 2022, All articles with bare URLs for citations, Articles covered by WikiProject Wikify from August 2022, All articles covered by WikiProject Wikify, Articles needing additional references from May 2019, All articles needing additional references, Articles with unsourced statements from September 2022, "Related ethnic groups" needing confirmation, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0, This page was last edited on 18 April 2023, at 13:56. The adjusted numbers published later are still considered dubious by many.Footnote53 Weitzberg has shown how problematic census results were already in colonial times.Footnote54 For nomadic populations, underreporting was observed frequently, as the census logic is linked to a sedentary lifestyle. Interview with Ibrahim, Nairobi, September 2010. Candidates aimed at maximizing the numbers of their own group, either by registering their voters in their area, or by driving others out.Footnote59 Even though the territorialization of ethnicity already started in colonial times, it was strengthened with re-introducing the multi-party system in 1992, and further intensified with devolution.Footnote60 The 47 county governments furthermore control about 30% of national revenue, divided between them in part according to population size, deepening discussions about the census figures of 2009.Footnote61. Balaton-Chrimes, Counting as Citizens, 215. Kenya's special envoy to the Horn of Africa, Ambassador Ali Bunow Korane, confirmed recently that the Ethiopian government and leadership of the ONLF have agreed to meet. His family did not know that Abdullahi lived a very different life, going to clubs and only very rarely to the mosque. Ceuppens and Geschiere argue that, in many African countries, ideas of national citizenship have been pushed aside by notions of autochthony with their implicit exclusion of strangers (allochthons) since the early 1990s.Footnote4 In Kenya, autochthony discourses play indeed a role regarding questions of who can vote where, but not concerning the overall notion of citizenship. ), total: 674,191 (2020 est. )proven reserves: 0 metric tons (2019 est. Kenya Population Census 1962, 34-5. )5.73% (2020 est. Menkhaus argues that this response strengthened support for al-Shabaab among ethnic Somalis in Kenya. Due to the years of war and negligence by the Ethiopian government, the quality of life in the Ogaden region has deteriorated. It is Kenya that does not want Somalis in Kenya.Footnote10, Even in colonial times, the Somali population of British East Africa was treated differently from other inhabitants. New Modes in the Struggle Over Citizenship and Belonging in Africa and Europe, The Fourth Point: An Examination of the Influence of Kenyan Somalis in Somalia, Decentralisation in Kenya: The Governance of Governors, Planning, Property and Plots At the Gateway to Kenyas New Frontier, Somalia Rising: Things are Starting to Change for the Worlds Longest Failed State, The Checkered History of the Somali in Kenya. The areas with altitudes between 1,400 and 1,600 metres are characterised as semi-arid; receiving as much as 500-600 mm of rainfall annually. )101.991 (2019 est. Kenya is a source of emigrants and a host country for refugees. When adding all categories of Somali in the 1989 census, their number stood at 421,340. During the 2011 drought in the northern regions of the country, for instance, there was a wave of solidarity with people donating to campaigns such as Kenyans for Kenya. Possession of Kenyan identity documents is, however, a necessity for participation in the legal aspects of citizenship. 16. 88. When I met him in Nakuru, he lived with his two brothers. )imports: 277 million kWh (2019 est. 85. Intersectionality, Citizenship and Contemporary Politics of Belonging. Cultural citizenship is also asserted by an investment in building Kenyas future,Footnote98 another way of working the soil.Footnote99 The involvement of Kenyan Somalis in the secession movement of the 1960s, and, today, in terrorist attacks, works in the opposite direction. Instead, a de jure count was undertaken, followed by sampling. For Somalians, Kenyan Somalis are Somali sijui, Somali who do not know (neither Somali language nor culture), brothers and sisters, but not real Somalis. )geothermal: 46.2% of total installed capacity (2020 est. )53.2% of GDP (2016 est. 21. 108. The biggest group of Somalis moving to the cities were therefore not refugees, but Kenyan Somalis whose migration resulted partly from the changing structures in the northeastern region. )$8.297 billion (31 December 2020 est. ), revenues: $16.885 billion (2019 est. Political competition linked to the re-introduction of multi-party politics as well as tensions between local communities and refugees over environmental degradation, jobs, and access to servicesFootnote34 led to several violent conflicts. When applying the population growth of Kenya (3.2%), a conservative approach ignoring the high number in children in many Somali families, to the census figures from 1962 (about 270,000 counted as Somali), one should have expected to count about 640,000 people. Ceuppens and Geschiere, Autochthony: Local Or Global.. As a result, this area remained separated from the rest of Kenya and was ruled under emergency regulations. Weitzberg, The Unaccountable Census, 419. At the same time, new trade routes emerged between Kenya and Somalia. [7] The Ogaden clan "constitutes the backbone of the ONLF ". Many urbanized Somalis did not see their future in Kenya and moved to Europe in the 1990s and 2000s. The position of Kenyan Somalis is, to speak in Yiftachel terms, situated in gray spaces, between the whiteness of legality or approval, and the blackness of eviction or destruction.
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